Alert Topics
Social Affairs
Urban Planning & Housing Archive
HOMEOWNER AFFORDABILITY AND STABILITY PLAN FACT SHEET. U.S. Department of the Treasury. February 19, 2009.
Full Text [HTML format, various paging]
The Homeowner Affordability and Stability Plan is part of the President
Obama’s broad, comprehensive strategy to get the economy back on track.
The plan will help up to 7 to 9 million families restructure or
refinance their mortgages to avoid foreclosure. In doing so, the plan
not only helps responsible homeowners on the verge of defaulting, but
prevents neighborhoods and communities from being pulled over the edge
too, as defaults and foreclosures contribute to falling home values,
failing local businesses, and lost jobs.
MEETING MULTIFAMILY HOUSING FINANCE NEEDS DURING AND AFTER THE CREDIT CRISIS: A POLICY BRIEF. Joint Center for Housing Studies, Harvard University. January 2009.
Full Text [PDF format, 28 pages]
The study contends that the policymakers must recognize the important differences between single-family and multifamily financing and take steps to ensure an adequate supply of capital to the multifamily sector during and after the economic crisis. The paper details the growing importance of rental apartments and points to a looming liquidity crisis that could seriously impair the sector, leading to a critical housing shortage.
[Note: contains copyrighted material]
HUD ISSUES NEW MORTGAGE RULES TO HELP CONSUMERS SHOP FOR LOWER COST HOME LOANS. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Web posted November 12, 2008.
Full Text: [HTML format, various paging] [PDF format, 3 pages. Good Faith Estimate (GFE)] [PDF format, 3 pages. Settlement Statement (HUD-1)] For the first time in more than 30 years, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development issued mortgage reforms that will help consumers to shop for the lowest cost mortgage and avoid costly and potentially harmful loan offers. HUD will require, for the first time ever, that lenders and mortgage brokers provide consumers with a standard Good Faith Estimate (GFE) that clearly discloses key loan terms and closing costs. HUD estimates its new regulation will save consumers nearly $700 at the closing table.
AA08394
Kotkin, Joel LONE STAR RISING (The American, March/April 2008, pp. 1-6)
Full text [HTML format]
Founded in the 1830’s in a nondescript area of southeastern Texas, Houston is growing rapidly; though it is not near a major river or port, Houston has attracted newcomers because of its reputation as an “opportunity city.” Houston’s leaders developed the city by attracting business and federal funds to the city. After the destruction of the neighboring port of Galveston in 1900 by a hurricane, Houston’s business leaders obtained local and federal funds to build a 50-mile-long ship channel to the Gulf of Mexico; the channel allowed Houston to become the nation’s second largest port. The discovery of oil in its vicinity cemented Houston’s rise. With the help of then-Senate majority leader Lyndon Johnson and House speaker Sam Rayburn, NASA’s Manned Spacecraft Center was located in Houston. By 2006 Houston’s population of over two million made it the fourth largest city in the U.S. Houston has always had an international orientation; while it may not be a favorite of urban aesthetes or food critics, the cost of living in Houston is lower than cities such as New York or San Francisco, and has a growing population and job market.
ADMINISTERING GREEN PROGRAMS IN CONGRESS: ISSUES AND OPTIONS. Congressional Research Service, RL34694, Library of Congress. Jacob R. Straus. Web posted November 1, 2008.
Full Text [PDF format, 35 pages]
Programs to create an environmentally conscious workplace have long existed on Capitol Hill. Congress has been working to reduce consumption and conserve energy since the 1970s. Traditionally, these programs have been administered by the Architect of the Capitol. In recent Congresses, the House of Representatives and the Senate have created separate greening programs. In addition, the Architect of the Capitol has developed green programs for the Capitol Complex. In the 110th Congress, the Architect of the Capitol’s role in administering facilities-related programs on behalf of the Senate has remained unchanged. The Architect of the Capitol also administers greening programs for the Capitol Complex.
AA08238
Bastone, Kelly GOING TO EXTREMES (Parks & Recreation, May 2008, pp. 60-67)
Full Text (EbscoHost; password required)
American municipalities are responding to residents’ growing enthusiasm for extreme sports. The author notes that providing outlets for extreme sports can also bring positive attention to a community, draw high-visibility competitions and events, and revitalize unsavory neighborhoods. Among the extreme-sports park success stories is Oklahoma City’s 26,000 square foot Action Sports Park, used for skateboarding, in-line skating, and BMX freestyle biking, and attracted over 30,000 users in 2007. Reno, Nevada, has opened the Truckee River Whitewater Park, which attracts both beginner and professional paddlers; the city estimates that the financial benefits to the community will far outweigh the cost of building and running the park. The Winter Sports Club in Steamboat Springs, Colorado has ski jump facilities, and is also used for training by Olympic ski jumpers. Some parks have virtually no financial costs; the “Walnut Wall” in Chattanooga, Tennessee, is a rock climbing site made popular by the refurbishing of the Walnut Street bridge which allows access to the north shore of the Tennessee river.
AA08238
Bastone, Kelly GOING TO EXTREMES (Parks & Recreation, May 2008, pp. 60-67)
Full Text (EbscoHost; password required)
American municipalities are responding to residents’ growing enthusiasm for extreme sports. The author notes that providing outlets for extreme sports can also bring positive attention to a community, draw high-visibility competitions and events, and revitalize unsavory neighborhoods. Among the extreme-sports park success stories is Oklahoma City’s 26,000 square foot Action Sports Park, used for skateboarding, in-line skating, and BMX freestyle biking, and attracted over 30,000 users in 2007. Reno, Nevada, has opened the Truckee River Whitewater Park, which attracts both beginner and professional paddlers; the city estimates that the financial benefits to the community will far outweigh the cost of building and running the park. The Winter Sports Club in Steamboat Springs, Colorado has ski jump facilities, and is also used for training by Olympic ski jumpers. Some parks have virtually no financial costs; the “Walnut Wall” in Chattanooga, Tennessee, is a rock climbing site made popular by the refurbishing of the Walnut Street bridge which allows access to the north shore of the Tennessee river.
OWNERSHIP, RENTAL COSTS AND THE PROSPECTS OF BUILDING HOME EQUITY: AN ANALYSIS OF 100 METROPOLITAN AREAS.
Center for Economic and Policy Research. Dean Baker et al. Web posted May 17, 2008.
Full Text [pdf format, 17 pages]
The bubble that developed in the U.S. housing market from the years 1996 to 2006 pushed prices in many markets far out of line with fundamental values. The correction that began in the middle of 2006 has helped to bring house prices back in line with their long-run trend growth path. Nonetheless, house prices in some of the most inflated markets are still hugely out of line with rents and income. The paper compares ownership and rental costs in the 100 largest metropolitan areas. It also makes projections for the potential for accumulating home equity in these markets, assuming that a homeowner remains in their home for four years, the median holding period for moderate income households.
[Note: contains copyrighted material]
REFORMING HOUSING AND REGIONAL POLICIES IN KOREA.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation Development. Randall S. Jones and Tadashi Yokoyama. May 2008.
Full Text [pdf format, 38 pages]
The South Korean government has introduced five policy packages since August 2005 to stabilize house prices, mainly due to concerns about possible spill-overs from the capital region to other parts of the country. The planned expansion in housing construction in the capital region will reduce upward pressure on house prices. However, other policies aimed at reducing “speculative” demand and lowering house prices, such as the price ceiling on new houses, are likely to constrain supply and result in stronger price pressures in the longer term. The report recommends that the Korean government should shift its focus from short-term price fluctuations in house prices to creating an efficient housing market, relying more on private-sector supply. Concern about increasing concentration in the capital region should be dealt with through economic instruments to address externalities, such as pollution and congestion, while phasing out the restrictions on construction in the capital region.
[Note: contains copyrighted material]
OPPORTUNITIES FOR CREATING LIVABLE COMMUNITIES.
AARP Policy & Research. Mia R. Oberlink. Web posted May 11, 2008.
Full Text [pdf format, 37 pages]
The most common barriers to creating livable communities are examined, offering examples of how communities around the country have realized increased housing and transportation choices for older adults and other community members. Many advocates for seniors and researchers estimate that many of the solutions for successful aging will arise through multi-faceted local planning and decision-making. Many communities are making great strides and developing innovative strategies to promote livability for people of all ages.
[Note: contains copyrighted material]
AA08126
Campbell, Zachary SMART GROWTH: STATES PROMOTE TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT (State News, vol. 51, no. 3, March 2008, pp. 22-24)
Full Text [pdf format, 3 pages]
With the high costs of gasoline, and increasing awareness of the importance of protecting the environment, states have began to support transit-oriented development -- compact communities centered around mass-transit systems where residents can conduct their daily affairs without needing cars. Six states -– California, Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, as well as Washington DC -- have transit-oriented development policies. Most projects are financed by increased property tax revenue from land and homes in the communities formed by these transit projects. The property tax revenue increases due to appreciation of the value of land and homes around the new transit-oriented community. Transit-oriented development is driven by the growth of American metropolitan areas; the percentage of the U.S. population living in urban areas rose from 63.3 percent in 1960 to 80.3 percent in 2000. Each state has a somewhat different approach to encouraging transit-oriented development, but with a common goal of encouraging environmentally friendly construction, bringing people closer to their jobs, and decreasing car usage.
COUNTIES AND RESIDENTIAL GREEN BUILDING STANDARDS.
Green Government, National Association of Counties. December 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 6 pages]
Home builders and home buyers are increasingly interested in green building for environmental, health, and financial reasons. Additionally, local governments are finding that green building projects reduce the impact on county infrastructures, such as water systems and landfills, while providing higher property values and a healthier populace. This paper describes how several cities and counties have promoted green building initiatives.
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
AFFORDABILITY AND SUBSIDES IN PUBLIC URBAN TRANSPORT: WHAT DO WE MEAN, WHAT CAN BE DONE?
Nicolás Estupiñán, Andrés Gómez-Lobo, Ramón Muñoz-Raskin, and Tomás Serebrisky. Policy Research Working Paper, World Bank. Web posted December 1, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 53 pages]
In both developed and developing countries, urban transport subsidy policies have been implemented, but no quantitative assessment to determine if these subsidies are “pro-poor” has been done. This study reviewed arguments used to justify public transport subsidies and evaluated the impacts of these policies. The evidence indicates that the policies do not make the poorest better off and that supply-side subsidies are either neutral or regressive.
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
GLOBAL AGE-FRIENDLY CITIES: A GUIDE.
World Health Organization (WHO). Web posted October 1, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 82 pages]
Population aging and urbanization are two global trends that are shaping the 21st century. Age-friendly cities encourage active aging opportunities for health, participation, and security. These cities adapt structures and services to be accessible and inclusive to older people. This Guide encourages city policymakers to become more age-friendly and to “tap the potential that older people represent for humanity.”
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
DEMOCRACY AND THE CITY: ASSESSING URBAN POLICY IN BRAZIL.
Daniel Nogueira Budny. Comparative Urban Studies Project and Brazil Institute, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Web posted July 14, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 6 pages]
This report summarizes a conference on urban development in Brazil held at the Woodrow Wilson Center in May.
Brazil offers important lessons for improving the quality of urban life through urban policy and planning, but it also shows how some policies can “backfire or cause unintended consequences.” Over the past twenty years, Brazil has used democratic policy to combat social inequality; however, the data suggests that “popular participation has not brought about social justice, as was expected, but has instead legalized spatial inequality.”
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
THE METROPOLITAN REGIONS OF LATIN AMERICA: PROBLEMS OF GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT.
Eduardo Rojas. Urbanization and Metropolitan Development, Inter-American Development Bank. May 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 19 pages]
One of the most outstanding characteristics of Latin America and the Caribbean has been the recent emergence of several cities into large metropolitan areas. These cities now represent 75% of the 523 million inhabitants and generate over 50% of the economic growth. Cities offer more opportunities for personal development and a better way of life. By 2025, it is expected that 80% of the population will live in urban areas.
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
RESTORING PROSPERITY: THE STATE ROLE IN REVITALIZING AMERICA’S OLDER INDUSTRIAL CITIES.
Jennifer S. Vey. Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program, Brookings Institution. Web posted May 21, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 84 pages]
America’s central cities are coming back—employment is up, populations are growing, and real estate is hot. This report examined 302 U.S. cities on eight issues dealing with economic indicators and residential well-being. Most of these central cities are older industrial communities with challenges such as low employment and business growth, low incomes, high unemployment, and a diminished tax base.
This report provides a framework for understanding how to restore prosperity to these cities especially those in the Northeast and Midwest. The report describes the challenges and opportunities these communities face as well as a policy agenda to advance their renewals.
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
INFRASTRUCTURE 2007: A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE.
Jonathan D. Miller. Urban Land Institute and Ernst & Young. May 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 69 pages]
By 2008, one half of the world’s population will live in cities. With the increase in population and the decrease in public funds, urban infrastructure has emerged as a major concern; but it is also seen as a new investment venue for urban income and capital returns.
This report is based on wide research and four forums of experts in the field of development, design, finance, engineering, and the public sector. The forums highlighted the current state of infrastructure repair and maintenance. New financing vehicles were also examined.
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
AA07199
THE WORLD GOES TO TOWN: A SPECIAL REPORT ON CITIES (The Economist, vol. 383, no. 8527, May 5, 2007, 18 pp.)
Full Text available from your nearest American Library
Sometime in the next few months, the proportion of the world's population living in cities will pass the fifty-percent mark, if it has not done so already. The Economist notes that the development of cities is synonymous with human development -– over the centuries, cities have been notable for their religious role, as the hub of empires, as centers of government and politics, education, commerce and manufacturing. This special series delves into the history of cities, and the economic and social forces that are drawing unprecedented numbers of people to cities around the world today, creating growing infrastructure and environmental challenges.
Paumgarten, Nick THERE AND BACK AGAIN: THE SOUL OF THE COMMUTER (New Yorker, April 16, 2007, pp. 58-70)
Full Text
The commute of an engineer at Cisco Systems in California, who travels seven hours a day to and from work, may be extreme, but increasingly four-hour commutes are no longer extraordinary in the U.S. To research his story, the author braves traffic nightmares in Atlanta, Georgia, as well as a three hour and fifteen minutes train and car commute from Manhattan to Pike County, Pennsylvania. Swiss economist Alois Stutzer sums up the dilemma facing modern workers: "People with long journeys to and from work are systematically worse off and report significantly lower subjective well-being." But they are reluctant to change, overvaluing the material benefits of their commute and undervaluing what they are giving up: "sleep, exercise, fun".
AA07179
McGray, Douglas POP-UP CITIES (Wired, May 2007, pp. 160//185)
Full Text
The London-based design and architectural firm Arup has landed one of the world’s biggest and most challenging construction projects -- the Shanghai Industrial Investment Corporation wants Arup to build a city from scratch on an island in the Yangtze River outside of Shanghai. Envisioned as a city of about 500,000, Arup is drawing a plan that will make the city, Dongtan, be entirely sustainable and environmentally conscious. “Dongtan was a rare chance to demonstrate that growth could happen a different way,” said Alejandro Gutierrez, an urban designer with Arup. The plan calls for Dongtan to be powered by local, renewable energy, with super-efficient buildings in dense, walkable neighborhoods where carbon dioxide emitting vehicles will be banned. The plan is a radical departure from China’s strategy where environmental concerns have been a far lesser priority than industrial expansion. The government revealed last year the environmental damage costs the economy $200 billion a year.
YOUTHBUILD PROGRAM: ANALYSIS OF OUTCOME DATA NEEDED TO DETERMINE LONG-TERM BENEFITS.
U.S. General Accountability Office (GAO). Web posted February 28, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 42 pages]
In 1993, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) provided funds for YouthBuild which is a competitive grant program that trains and educates disadvantaged youth and helps build low-income housing. This program was transferred to the U.S. Department of Labor in 2006. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) was asked to assess the program and HUD’s post-program performance to determine the long-term benefits of this program.
SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT IN ASIA: MAKING THE VISION A REALITY.
CAI-Asia Program, World Resources Institute. Web posted January 19, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 62 pages]
The Partnership for Sustainable Urban Transport in Asia (PSUTA) is an initiative to raise awareness on sustainable urban transport and to encourage cities and governments to improve the sustainability of transport systems. “The PSUTA partners developed a Strategic Framework for Sustainable Transport. The Strategic Framework analyses the challenges facing urban transport systems in Asia and proposes that policy makers focus on improving access of people to work, services, leisure, and each other without compromising future generations’ ability to do the same.”
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
WHAT MAKES CITIES HEALTHY?
Shahid Yusuf, Kaoru Nabeshima and Wei Ha. The World Bank and Harvard University. January 2007.
Full text available from your nearest American Corner
Improving the health of the poor is a key Millennium Development Goal. Many believe that increased public spending on health (backed by foreign assistance and an international effort for drugs and vaccines) will ensure better health outcomes in developing nations. This research “suggests that the four most potent policy interventions are: water and sanitation systems; urban land use and transport planning; effective primary care and health programs aimed at influencing diets and lifestyles; and education.” The authors believe that “health care policies are likely to depend upon an acceleration of economic growth rates which increase household purchasing power and enlarge the pool of resources available to national and sub-national governments to invest in health related infrastructure and services.”
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
DEVELOPING APPROPRIATE RENTAL HOUSING FOR LOW-INCOME OLDER PERSONS: A SURVEY OF SECTION 202 AND LIHTC PROPERTY MANAGERS.
Public Policy Institute, AARP. Web posted January 11, 2007.
Full Text [pdf format, 10 pages]
The rental housing crisis in America is having a profound effect on older residents. The federal government has two main housing programs for the elderly: Section 202 of the Supportive Housing for the Elderly Program, and the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC). This informational survey presents four key findings:
- Many participants of Section 202 and/or LIHTC programs are advanced in age, frail, or disabled and many face the risk of costly institutionalization;
- The supply of Section 202 and LIHTC housing units is limited;
- Section 202 and LIHTC properties have architectural features needed to promote independence for the aged and frail; and
- Section 202 units are more successful than LIHTC properties in providing services for the elderly; such as, laundry facilities, recreational facilities, and transportation.
[Note: Contains copyrighted material.]
RATES, TRENDS, CAUSES, AND CONSEQUENCES OF URBAN LAND-USE CHANGE IN THE UNITED STATES.
William Acevedo, Janis L. Taylor, Dave J. Hester, Carol S. Mladinich, and Sonya Glavac, eds. U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of Interior. Web posted December 28, 2006.
Full Text [pdf format, 206 pages]
Urban areas were primarily located along major rivers and bodies of water during the 19th century. Railroads made the expansion and development away from the waters’ edge possible. After World War II, urban areas expanded outward from city centers where land was cheaper and the environment was better. The building of interstate highways expanded the urban areas across the U.S.
Economic and population growth after World War II contributed to suburbanization. Federally backed home loans, credit and tax incentives, and less restrictive building and municipal codes contributed to the expansion of suburbs.
The purpose of this study was to understand the causes of these changes and to analyze how urbanization physically spreads across the land. The authors note that “the knowledge gained from studying urban land-use change can be helpful when it flows into local, regional, and national decisionmaking that relates to land-use decisions that impact the people, the economy, and the environment.”
AA06327
Werlin, Herbert THE SLUMS OF NAIROBI: EXPLAINING URBAN MISERY (World Affairs, vol. 169, no. 1, Summer 2006, pp. 39-48)
View article on ProQuest (password required)
The author advocates competitive approaches to foreign aid by dissecting the complex web of corruption and negative, mutually reinforcing policies that contribute to urban blight in Kenya's capital. Dysfunctional post-colonial administration of basic city services was exacerbated by a growing ethic of self-enrichment and nepotism that frustrated efforts to organize and develop communities in the growing city, leading to deplorable squatter settlements, a rising crime rate, and crumbling infrastructure, which in turn has led to increasing declines in sanitation, health, and safety. Werlin acknowledges that long-term solutions must originate from within the country and calls upon donor countries to require more responsible governing behaviors though their foreign aid allocations.
Fisher, Thomas INSPIRED INFRASTRUCTURE: THE CLEAN HUB COULD BRING SOLAR ELECTRICITY AND BASIC SANITATION TO THE WORLD'S SLUMS (Utne, May/June 2006, p. 16)
View article on publisher's web site
This brief article, originally published in Architecture Minnesota, describes architect John Dwyer's idea for a self-contained structure that has a V-shaped roof to collect rain-water and solar-generated electricity, as well as a waterless and self-composting toilet. The 30-year life span of the structure makes it particularly suitable for informal settlements lacking basic infrastructure.
DIFFERENTIATED ROAD PRICING, EXPRESS LANES AND CARPOOLS: EXPLOITING HETEROGENEOUS PREFERENCES IN POLICY DESIGN
Kenneth A. Small, Clifford Winston, Jia Yan. AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studes, Working Paper 06-06. Mar 2006.
Summary
Full report [pdf format, 44 pages]
"In the face of rising congestion on the nation’s road system, policymakers have explored ways to reduce travel delays. One approach has been to allocate reserved lanes—called high-occupancy-vehicle (HOV) lanes—to vehicles carrying two or more people. A recent innovation is to allow solo drivers to use the HOV lanes if they pay a toll. These so-called high-occupancy-toll (HOT) lanes can be found in Los Angeles, San Diego, Houston, and Minneapolis and are under consideration in several other urban areas. In this paper, we argue that HOV and HOT lanes sacrifice efficiency by failing to price all lanes. Moreover, we show that it is possible to set prices on all lanes that improve on the efficiency of HOV and HOT policies and by catering to motorists’ varying preferences, can meet the test of political acceptability." — summary
AA06058
Fischetti, Mark PROTECTING NEW ORLEANS (Scientific American, Vol. 294, No. 2, February 2006, pp. 64-71)
Read article on publisher's website
Millions of people worldwide live on river deltas that are vulnerable to flooding as human activity contributes to land sinking and sea levels rising. When Hurrican Katrina struck New Orleans in August of last year, levees (dikes) protecting the city failed during the storm surge, flooding wide areas of the city; loss of life and property was substantial. Plans are being developed to reconstruct and improve the levee system to protect from surges caused by category 5 storms, as well as restore coastal marshes that provide a natural buffer to hurricanes. Fischetti, a Scientific American contributing editor, reviews storm surge defenses used in other countries, which experts suggest should be considered for New Orleans. Diagrams illustrate floating and sluice gates used along the Netherlands coast, hydraulic disks on the River Thames near London, and flaps being installed to protect Venice, Italy. He notes the need to coordinate physical protection across governmental jurisdictions, incorporate scientific data into the plans, and address the issues of people living in such vulnerable areas.
ONE-FIFTH OF THE NATION: AMERICA'S FIRST SUBURBS
Robert Puentes and David Warren, Brookings Institution, February 2006
Summary
Full report [pdf format, 20 pages]
"Neither fully urban nor completely suburban, America's older, inner-ring, 'first' suburbs have a unique set of challenges — such as concentrations of elderly and immigrant populations as well as outmoded housing and commercial buildings — very different from those of the center city and fast growing newer places. Yet first suburbs exist in a policy blindspot with little in the way of state or federal tools to help them adapt to their new realities and secure a role as competitive and quality communities. This paper defines first suburbs throughout the nation, examines their similarities and differences, and, finally, sets out a policy agenda tailored specifically to these distinctive places." — from the summary
AA05360
Swope, Christopher RETHINKING THE URBAN SPEEDWAY (Governing, vol. 19, no. 1, October 2005, pp. 26-34)
View article on publisher's website
For decades, highway engineers who worked for state government departments of transportation (DOTs) focused on building roads that were wider and straighter, to accommodate high volumes of fast-moving traffic. Swope, a Governing magazine staff writer, notes that this is an artifact of the construction of the Interstate Highway system after World War II, which required states to adhere to rigorously uniform standards in order to build a consistent national road network. However, when DOTs applied the same formula to state and local highways, which typically run through variegated urban and suburban settings, the result has been congested thoroughfares that are dangerous to pedestrians, and housing and commercial development approved by local governments that produces even more traffic and necessitates the building of even more roads. Many DOTs have discarded long-held methods of highway construction, and embraced "context-sensitive design", which takes local surroundings and input from local residents into account. This process has freed up many projects long stalled by local opposition; notes one engineer, "we can't build roads fast enough anymore."